History of The Southwestern Pueblo Indians
Information by Council of Indian Nations
These pages have been provided in an effort
to acquaint our valued guests to the history of the New Mexico
Indian Pueblo People, Spanish and Anglo cultures that are so abundantly rich here
in the Southwest. We hope your visit back in time to the history
of these wonderful people will be enjoyable, interesting and enlightening!
Some experts date the origins of native cultures
in the southwestern United States to immigrants who crossed Bering
land bridge, from Siberia to Alaska, approximately 100,000 BC. Others
say native cultures came to the Americas as early as 25,000 BC. Many
changes occurred in the Southwest after the year 1200 AD. New tribes
moved in, weather changed, and some tribes moved out. In
1500 AD most of the world's cultures were preoccupied with producing food.
People were hunter-gatherers, herded domestic animals, farmed using hand cultivation,
or used the plough to cultivate crops. The Spanish came to Central Mexico
just after 1500, and within 50 years had obliterated the Mayan and
Aztecan cultures. The Southwestern Indians proved to be much more resilient,
and the coming of the Spanish actually advanced Indian culture for a
period of time. New technologies, different plants and the arrival of
horses and sheep had significant positive impacts on Indian cultures as well.
The history of the Southwest Indians since 1845 is filled with promises made
and broken by the United States government. In the end, the Indian
cultures were moved to smaller and smaller reservations, most without access
to traditional natural resources.
All the Pueblo People have similar religions, governments
and economies. They have kept their strong traditional communities and continue
to practice their rituals and religions. Customs and cultural order
which have been passed down from centuries, have held firm despite U.S. efforts
to significantly alter them. Most Pueblo People speak English, however
many of them also speak their traditional dialects - Tewa, Zuni, Keres and
Tiwa. Each dialect, or distinct language, is spoken by the inhabitants
of several pueblos in New Mexico.
The name "pueblo" comes from the name given
to cliff-side dwellings first built in the 12th century AD. Pueblos,
which were small rooms built along the cliff, concealed the Indians from attacking
raids, yet kept them close to their farming lands and water sources.
During the 13th and 14th centuries the Pueblo People began to build their
pueblos on less accessible mesas, with defensive walls and lookouts that surrounded
large clusters of rooms. These mesa locations were inconvenient for
farming and gathering water, but excellent for defensive purposes. Each
pueblo was economically and governmentally self sufficient, but they did participate
in a loose federation.
When the Spanish arrived just after 1500, there were 98 pueblo villages in
New Mexico. About 40,000 Pueblo Indians lived in these villages. This
was nearly half the Southwest's Indian population at that time. By the end
of the century, most of the mesa pueblos had been abandoned. Only the
large pueblo clusters, those with 1,000 or more survived. By the late
1800's there were only 19 villages remaining- all of which still exist today!
The following map shows the current location of the tribes within New Mexico.
Pueblo Bonito Bed & Breakfast Inn, located in Santa Fe, NM is proud
of it's multi-cultural heritage and has chosen the following 17 tribes and
language to share interesting facts with you. These were specifically chosen
since this enchanting downtown Santa Fe bed and breakfast has 18 rooms
each of which proudly holds the name of the following:
Pueblo Tribes:
Tesuque: The Tesuque is one of the most conservative and traditional of all New Mexico pueblos. It spans 26 square miles of pinon covered hills approximately nine miles north of Santa Fe. Just over 400 people live on this pueblo. The Tesuque pueblo was established in about 1200 AD and the present day location was founded in 1694 along the Tesuque River. The pueblo's economic activities have always been based upon agriculture. Today, more and more residents of the pueblo find employment in Santa Fe and Los Alamos.
Nambe: Nambe is only a few minutes north of Santa Fe, New Mexico. In the Tewa language spoken by the Nambe people, the word "Nambe" means "People of the Round Earth". Perhaps this is in reference to the landscape which encircles the pueblo with its spectacular beauty and breath-taking views of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in the distance. The Nambe Pueblo is almost completely Hispanicized and is almost completely surrounded by non-Indian residents. However, there has been a recent renaissance of interest in the traditional rituals and crafts and the Nambe artists are making a comeback. Weaving is being revived with kilts and cotton belts. Traditional Tesuque Indian Pottery is also coming back with black on black and white on red designs similar to the work of Taos and Pircuis Pueblo potters.
Santa Clara: The Santa Clara people came from the Puye Cliff Dwellings, about 10 miles away from the current Santa Clara pueblo. The people lived at Puye for approximately 300 years before giving up the cliff dwellings due to a lack of water in 1550 AD. At that time the Puye community housed up to 1,500 Indians. The Santa Clara Pueblo is the second largest of the Tewa speaking Pueblos. Until recently the Santa Clara Indians relied on agriculture as it's economic base. Today, Santa Clara is renowned for it's arts, crafts and pottery.
San Juan: The San Juan Pueblo lies 30 miles north of Santa Fe, New Mexico and has been inhabited for over 700 years. It is surrounded mainly by farmland along the Rio Grande River and is home to over 1,800 people. San Juan Pueblo is the largest of the Tewa speaking pueblos, with about 12,000 acres. Popay who lead the great Pueblo Revolt of 1680, was from the San Juan Pueblo. Popay felt that the San Juan people were too submissive to the Spanish so he left to live at the Taos Pueblo. Once the Pueblo revolt began, the San Juan people joined in. San Juan was the original capitol of New Mexico under Spanish rule. Today it is the seat of the Northern Indian Pueblos Council.
Taos: Taos Indians have lived in the Taos Valley of New Mexico for over 800 years. When the Spanish arrived in Taos Valley in 1540, they believed that they had found the fabled golden city of Cibola. The pueblos that the Taos live in are made of adobe. This is earth mixed with water and straw then formed into bricks and dried. The Taos have always been a religious people viewing their spirituality as a way of establishing harmony with the universe. The Taos are a proud and fiercely independent people. They have for years enforced a policy that forbids marriage outside the Pueblo. This has served to maintain the bloodline of this people. Their strong sense of community has also maintained their sense of tribal identity. The people have a tradition of secrecy which has kept many of their sacred beliefs and customs from the outside world. Taos Pueblo today stands as the largest surviving multistoried Pueblo structure in the United States.
Santo Domingo: The Santo Domingo people came from the people who once lived in Chaco Canyon. These people moved to the great pueblo at Mesa Verde and then to nearby Bandelier. The current pueblo has been moved many times due to flooding along the Rio Grande River. The Santo Domingo have historically had a strong agricultural base and were at the center of many trade routes. The chief Spanish mission for this area of New Mexico was located here, and thus Santo Domingo Pueblo was the regional headquarters for Spanish activity. About 4,000 people live at the pueblo today. Some reside in new housing and much of the older village resembles Mexican villages of today. Large numbers of people here move about the streets in the evenings to congregate and socialize.
San Felipe: The San Felipe Pueblo lies at the base of the Santa Ana Mesa where the Indians here once lived. They were forced to the banks of the Rio Grande by marauding Apache's where the present day village is. Today the community is a timeless village that must be much like it was 200 year ago. It is easily one of the most picturesque locals of any pueblo village. The San Felipe people are the most conservative of the Keresan speaking pueblos. Nearly 2,600 people live at the San Felipe Pueblo today. Agriculture and mining, along with pottery making, are the mainstays of the economy. Most of the people here have retained and speak the Keresan language.
Comanche: The Comanche were a proud and very fierce Indian Society- feared by all who knew them. Comanche were originally apart of the Eastern Shoshoni who lived near the upper reaches of the Platte River in Eastern Wyoming. For about 50 years they lived between the Platte and Arkansas River in eastern Colorado and western Kansas. Then they began crossing the Arkansas River and established themselves in large areas of Oklahoma, Texas and New Mexico. The Comanche are thought to be the first native people of the plains to have horses. They were hunter-gatherer nomadic people who existed on the plains buffalo and raiding other Indian tribes and Mexican camps. It is said that between 1700 and 1875, they stole every horse and mule in New Mexico and Northern Mexico and enough to make them scarce in Texas! They were known as "the Snake People" by other Indian tribes but prefer to call themselves " Our People".
Santa Ana: The Santa Ana people moved to this area approximately 1250 AD. They settled along the Rio Grande River to farm, and the pueblo is located in the middle of Indian trade routes. The Santa Ana were early users of ditch irrigation. The Santa Ana people are Keresan speaking and there are just over 600 who live in a new section of the pueblo. The old village has largely been abandoned, although some families use their homes in the old village as a second home. Many of the tribal members have been assimilated into other cultures over the years.
Isleta: Isleta means "Little Island" in Spanish, but Isleta Pueblo is hardly little having 21,002 acres and a population over 3,000. Isleta has had a troubled history. When the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 began, many members fled to Hopi settlements in Arizona. After the rebellion was over, many returned bring Hopi-mates and half-Hopi children. The language is generally Tiwa with most people speaking English. Agriculture is the principle occupation of the Isleta people. Additional revenue is derived from land leased to local business concerns and to the United States Government. Recent revival of pottery making is giving work to a number of artisans such as the well known Chiwiwi family. Embroidery and jewelry are also experiencing a revival. Isleta is known for its bread.
Zia: The Zia pueblo was settled around 1250 AD. During its heyday in the 16th and 17th centuries, it was one of the largest pueblos with over 6,000 Indians. At that time it had 8 plazas and was at the center of Indian trade routes. The Zia lived 2 and 3 story adobe homes that surrounded the plaza. The central location of the Zia pueblo caused them alot of problems. Navajo and Apache raiders were a constant threat. The Spanish first came in 1541 and interfered with the spiritual ways of the Zia. The Zia joined the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, but the Spanish came back 8 year later to destroy much of the Zia community. The Zia were successful dry land farmers and could sustain a large populations. They grew corn, beans, squash and melons. The Spanish introduced livestock and today the economy here depends more on ranching than farming. The Zia is known as the home of the sun symbol that New Mexico uses on its state flag. This symbol has long been used as a trademark on the Zia pottery. The people here speak Keresan.
Picuris: The Picuris people have only a population of 270, but at one time it was one of the two largest pueblos with over 3,000 Indians. European diseases and attacks from the Apache decreased the population dramatically over time. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 did not fare well for the Indians in this community, however, the Picuris were considered fierce warriors and led much of the attack against the Spanish. Picuris is located in an isolated valley in the Northern hills of New Mexico. They refer to themselves as "the people of the hidden valley". The Anasazi lived here since 900 AD and the Picuris people arrived in about 1250 AD. The Picuris historically relied upon hunting and farming for subsistence. Today, many of the Picuris have moved away to seek higher paying jobs elsewhere. During the 1960's an excavation project was undertaken at the old village site near the current day town. A large array of artifacts are now on display at a museum in Picuris.
Acoma: The Acoma Pueblo, about an hour west of Albuquerque, is home to 6,000 tribal members. Most of the community lives in the villages of Acomita and McCartys. The main attraction of this 377,000-acre reservation is "Sky City", located 365 ft above the surrounding valley. The Acoma claim that it is the oldest continually habited village in the United States. Sky City has 250 dwellings, non of which have electricity, sewer or water. Each family on the reservation owns one dwelling on the Sky City mesa. Many spend time at their homes during the year Only forty Acoma live on top of the mesa year round. The homes have been there since 1150. These dwellings are remarkable well preserved.
Laguna: Laguna pueblo has nearly 4,000 people on over half a million acres. The pueblo has six villages spread over a semi-arid landscape. The Laguna speak primarily Keresan dialect. This pueblo is the most recently established of all the pueblos. The Laguna pueblo ancestors came from the North. The people were refugees from many tribes that were fleeing the Spanish re-conquest of 1699. Refugees from the Hopi, Acoma, Zuni, San Felipe, Zia and Sandia tribes reside here. Four dialects are spoken on this Pueblo due to its diversity. Each of the six villages also has its own slant on ceremonies and on the dates that they take place. The St. Joseph Mission Church in Old Laguna Village is considered one of the most beautiful Spanish Mission churches. It contains some beautiful and important paintings. This church is still in use today.
Zuni: The Zuni Pueblo is the largest and most populous pueblo in New Mexico, with 724 square miles and over 9,000 people. The Zuni and their ancestors have been at this site for over 2,000 years. The soil here is rich and there is plenty of water for irrigation. The Zuni was the first pueblo to be visited by Spanish explorers in the 1500's. It was thought to be the site of one of the "Seven Cities of Gold". This was actually a lie perpetuated by a rogue Spanish explorer. A year later, Coronado's expedition came looking for streets lined with gold and instead found a hostile Zuni people. War ensued and the Zuni relented after a period. The Zuni accepted the Spanish intrusion, but not their ways. Many Friars were killed at the mission by the Zuni. In the mid 1800's the Zuni had become the wealthiest and the largest political force in the region. They grew crops and became sheepherders. Today the unemployment rate is high and the per capita income is the lowest of any pueblo. Half of all the students here don't finish high school. There are several communities on the reservation, none of which are dominated by the adobe style houses that most other pueblos have.
Tewa: The Tewa "moccasin" people lived in more than 80 villages near today's San Juan Pueblo. Each of these villages was divided into two sections- a winter section and a summer section. Each section had its own leader. The winter leader ruled from fall equinox to the spring equinox. The summer leader ruled from spring until fall. Because summer was more important to the livelihood of the village, the summer leader had more influence.
San Ildefonso: The San Ildefonso Pueblo is situated north of Santa Fe and is home to about 500 residents. The most striking physical feature of the pueblo is the Black Mesa. The Rio Grande River cuts through the pueblo, providing plenty of water for irrigation. This is a Tewa- speaking pueblo, which had a history of growing corn and beans. They stored their harvest in pots and covered with rawhide. There are several archeological sites on the pueblo, which has been occupied since 1300 AD. The Spanish attacked the pueblo in 1694 and the tribe sought refuge on the top of Black Mesa, where they successfully repelled the Spanish advance. Eventually the tribe surrendered, and the pueblo population was decimated by disease. By 1864 there were only 161 pueblo members left. A smallpox outbreak in 1918 took the population below 100. This pueblo is unique vigas and columned porches. Today there is a nearby dam that supplies irrigation water to grow corn, beans, squash and chilies. Many of these items can be seen drying on lines in the backyards of people's homes.
Pueblo Bonito in San Juan Basin
Pueblo Bonito Bed & Breakfast Inn located in Santa Fe, shares it's name with a famous archeological site called "Pueblo Bonito" located in stunning Chaco Canyon in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico. Pueblo Bonito, or "pretty village" in Spanish is the largest and most famous ruin at Chaco Canyon. It is the largest of the Great Houses at this site. It was constructed in four phases beginning in 900 and finsihing in 1115 AD. This pueblo still stands four stories high at the back, once had a fifth level, and contained between six and eight hundred rooms and about 40 kivas. Several great kivas are located within its great plaza, split in two by a long, low building. The Chacoan method for building large, multi-storied houses was employed where the great weight of the upper stories were supported by massive walls in the lower level. Behind Pueblo Bonito is a series of petroglyphs depicting six toed feet made in the late 900's or early 1000's. Although the meaning is unknown, other appendages can be found on other Anasazi rock art as well.
Pueblo Bonito Bed & Breakfast Inn
In a similar way, Pueblo Bonito Bed & Breakfast Inn in Santa Fe, proudly continues the New Mexico lodging tradition of the past! This enchanting downtown Santa Fe vacation destination is a two story foot-and-a-half thick adobe building having 18 Santa Fe lodging units! It was given it's name over 75 years ago by Mr. Al Kempineck who purchased the highly sought after property from U.S Federal Court Judge John McFie in the early 1930's.
Judge McFie served the U.S. Court system from early 1880 to well into the mid 1900's. He was assigned to the Southwest Texas Territory (which included West Texas and all of New Mexico) prior to New Mexico becoming a state! During his term, many noteworthy western outlaws showed up on the scene, such as Doc Campbell, Billy the Kid, and Pancho Villa to mention only a few. After purchasing this amazing two story adobe pueblo-style estate, complete with horse stalls, barn, servants quarters and gardens, Mr. Kemenick made the conversion into apartments. Just like the Pueblo Bonito of old (except with indoor plumbing!).
Due to its prime location (in downtown historic Santa Fe, just a stone's throw away from the New Mexico State Capital building, it provided necessary services to Santa Fe artists, politicians and community members. With rent as low as $35/month, Pueblo Bonito served home to many colorful people of the day, some of which are now famous such as Hilar Hiler- southwestern artist. There were non-famous folk as well, such as George Sanders who lived at Pueblo Bonito while serving in Los Alamos as personal body guard to Robert Oppenheimer, head physicist of the Manhattan project (see picture). Ladies of the evening were known to keep house at Pueblo Bonito in the earlier days to provide services for the gentlemen coming in on business from the Santa Fe Railroad. There was even a neighborhood market conducting business out of San Ildefonso (#20). In the 1970's the property changed hands again, but kept it's occupancy as apartments. Better known as "starving" artists apartments, an unknown artists who could not make rent one month left behind three murals upstairs on the indoor hallway next to Isleta (#10) and Santa Ana (#9).
In 1986, a young newly wed couple coming from Dallas, Texas began the Santa Fe Bed and Breakfast we now know as Pueblo Bonito! Herb and Amy Behm at a ripe young age of 28 and 24 decided to make a go of it. With background in franchising location and business management, Herb took to providing Santa Fe accommodations beautifully! Amy, a recent graduate of Southern Methodist University and originally from Santa Fe had some background in marketing and a business degree. Together, the Behm's worked side by side learning the business of Innkeeping. With no other employees but themselves for the the first year of business and 12 rooms with breakfasts served to the rooms (not like today with a communal room) the learning curve was great! Their goal was then and still is to provide a relax and comfortable atmosphere at a reasonable price, always desiring a return visit from each of their satisfied guests.
The product, Pueblo Bonito, has demanded constant tender loving care due to it's age and the desire to keep its authenticity as a prime Southwestern property in the heart of charming historic Santa Fe! Over the past 18 years, the Inn has had several face lifts from adding showers to every room, to a complete overhaul of the communal area, to adding a hot tub facility, to placing phones and air conditioners in each room, redoing the quaint brick pathways, and getting a brand new kitchen for breakfast and tea service! Through these growth spurts, we have received numerous encouragements from receiving "Best Preservation Renovation for Historical Significance" in 1988 - Santa Fe Historical Society; "Best of Santa Fe" for Accommodation in 1995- Reporter"; 2nd in "Best of Santa Fe" for Bed and Breakfast 2000- Reporter; Featured in Sunset Magazine Jan '04 issue as well as the Santa Fean Magazine March '04 issue. Being named after such a beautiful historic site as Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon, Pueblo Bonito Bed & Breakfast Inn has a big plate to fill. However, it appears that this little Inn nestled in the heart of the old southwest is indeed, holding it's own.
